Pages

Subscribe:

Senin, 11 Maret 2013

Kebaya

Kebaya



A group of women posing in traditional Peranakan nonya kebaya
A Kebaya is a traditional blouse-dress combination that originates from Indonesia and worn by women in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Burma, Singapore, southern Thailand. It is sometimes made from sheer material such as silk, thin cotton or semi-transparent nylon or polyester, adorned with brocade or floral pattern embroidery. Kebaya usually worn with a sarong or batik kain panjang, or other traditional woven garment such as ikat, songket with a colorful motif.
The kebaya is the national costume of Indonesia, although it is more accurately endemic to the Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese[1] peoples.

Contents

Etymology

Kebaya is inspired from Arab region clothing;[2] the Arabic word abaya means clothing.

History


R.A. Kartini and her husband in 19th century
The earliest form of Kebaya originates in the court of the Javanese Majapahit Kingdom as a means to blend the existing female Kemban, torso wrap of the aristocratic women to be more modest and acceptable to the newly adopted Islam religion. Aceh, Riau and Johor Kingdoms and Northern Sumatra adopted the Javanese style kebaya as a means of social expression of status with the more alus or refined Javanese overlords.[3]
The name of Kebaya as a particular clothing type was noted by the Portuguese when they landed in Indonesia. Kebaya is associated with a type of blouse worn by Indonesian women in 15th or 16th century. Prior to 1600, kebaya on Java island were considered as a sacred clothing to be worn only by royal family, aristocrats (bangsawan) and minor nobility, in an era when peasant men and many women walked publicly bare-chested.
Slowly it naturally spread to neighbouring areas through trade, diplomacy and social interactions to Malacca, Bali, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi and the Sultanate of Sulu and Mindanao [4][5][6] Javanese kebaya as known today were noted by Raffles in 1817, as being of silk, brocade and velvet, with the central opening of the blouse fastened by brooches, rather than button and button-holes over the torso wrap kemben, the kain (and unstitched wrap fabric several metres long erroneously termed 'sarong in English (a sarung (Malaysian accent: sarong) is stitched to form a tube, like a Western dress) After hundreds of years of regional acculturation, the garments have become highly localised expressions of ethnic culture, artistry and tailoring traditions.
The earliest photographic evidence of the kebaya as known today date from 1857 of Javanese, Peranakan and Eurasian styles.[7]

Costume components


An elderly Sundanese woman wearing simple kebaya, kain batik and batik headcloth, West Java.

Indonesian maiden in kebaya and kain batik. The trace of kemban (torso wrap) can be seen underneath the semi-transparent brocade kebaya.
The quintessential kebaya is the Javanese kebaya as known today is essentially unchanged as noted by Raffles in 1817.[8][9] It consists of the blouse (kebaya) of cotton , silk, lace, brocade or velvet, with the central opening of the blouse fastened by a central brooch (kerongsang) where the flaps of the blouse meet. Traditional kebaya had no buttons down the front. A typical three-piece kerongsang is composed of a kerongsang ibu (mother piece) that is larger and heavier than the other two kerongsang anak (child piece). Kerongsang brooch often made from gold jewelry and considered as the sign of social status of aristocracy, wealth and nobility, however for commoners and peasant women, simple and plain kebaya often only fastened with modest safety pin (peniti).
The blouse is commonly semi-transparent and worn over the torso wrap or kemben. The skirt or kain is an unstitched fabric wrap around three metres long. The term sarong in English is erroneous, the sarung (Malaysian accent: sarong) is actually stitched together to form a tube, like a Western dress- the kain is unstitched, requires a helper to dress (literally wrap) the wearer and is held in place with a string (tali), then folded this string at the waist, then held with a belt (sabuk or ikat pinggang), which may hold a decorative pocket.

Varieties

There are two main varieties. The blouse, known as baju kebaya may be of two main form: the semi-transparent straighter cut blouse of the Java, Bali, the more tightly tailored Sunda kebaya, and the more Islamic compatible, plainer baju kurung is a loose-fitting, knee-length long-sleeved blouse worn in the more adherent Muslim areas- including former Kingdom of Johor-Riau (now Malaysia), Sumatra and parts of coastal Java.
In Java, Bali and Sunda, the kain is commonly batik which may be from plain stamped cotton to elaborately hand-painted batik tulis embroidered silk with gold thread. In Lampung, the kain is the traditional tapis- an elaborate gold-thread embroidered ikat with small mica discs.[10] Sumatera, Flores, Lemata Timor, and other islands commonly use kain of ikat or songket. Sumba is famous for kain decorated with lau hada: shells and beads.[11]
In the Malacca, Malaysia, a different variety of kebaya is called "nyonya kebaya" worn by those of Chinese ancestry: the Peranakan people. The Nyonya kebaya is different in its famously intricately hand-beaded shoes (kasut manek) and use of kain with Chinese motive batik or imported printed or hand-painted Chinese silks. Other than Malacca, the nyonya kebaya also popular in other straits settlements; Penang and Singapore.
In Java, the kebaya worn by ladies of Chinese ancestry is called kebaya encim, derived from the name encim or enci to refer to a married Chinese woman.[12] It was commonly wore by Chinese ladies in Javan coastal cities with significant Chinese settlements, such as Semarang, Lasem, Tuban, Surabaya, Pekalongan and Cirebon. It marked differently from Javanese kebaya with its smaller and finer embroidery, lighter fabrics and more vibrant colors, made from imported materials such as silk and other fine fabrics. The encim kebaya fit well with vibrant-colored kain batik pesisiran (Javan coastal batik).
During Dutch colonization of the island, European women began wearing the less restrictive and cooler kebaya as a formal or social dress. European women wore shorter sleeve and total length cotton in prints.
The day kebaya of the Indo Eurasians was of white cotton trimmed with European handmade lace- commonly from Bruges or the Netherlands and black silk for evening wear.

Political significance

The only woman present during Indonesia's Proclamation of Independence, Dutch-educated activist SK Trimurti- wore kebaya cementing it as the female dress of Nationalism.
In Japanese internment camps during the Second World War, Indonesian female prisoners refused to wear the Western dress allocated them and instead wore kebaya as a display of Nationalist and racial solidarity separate from fellow Chinese, Europeans and Eurasian inmates.[13]
The 21st of April is celebrated in Indonesia as National Kartini Day where Raden Ajeng Kartini, the female suffragist and education advocate is remembered by schoolgirls wearing traditional dress according to their region. In Java, Bali and Sunda it is the kebaya.[1]
Kebaya as the national costume of Indonesian women were often featured by Indonesian first ladies. The wives of Sukarno, Indonesian first president; Fatmawati Sukarno and Dewi Sukarno were known to wearing kebaya daily.
The Suharto-era bureaucrat wives' social organisation Dharma Wanita wears a uniform of gold kebaya, with a red sash (selendang) and stamped batik pattern on the kain unique to Dharma Wanita. The late Indonesian first lady and also a minor aristocrat Tien Suharto was a prominent advocate of the kebaya.
Former President Megawati Sukarnoputri is a public champion of kebaya and wears fine red kebaya whenever possible in public forums and 2009 Presidential election debates.
Cultural rivalry between Malaysia and Indonesia has given rise to media-based spats over the true ownership of the 'kebaya.

Modern usage and innovations


Garuda Indonesia flight attendant uniform in kebaya and kain batik.
Apart from traditional kebaya, fashion designers are looking into ways of modifying the design and making kebaya a more fashionable outfit. Casual designed kebaya can even be worn with jeans or skirts. For weddings or formal events, many designers are exploring other types of fine fabrics like laces to create a bridal kebaya.
Modern-day kebaya now incorporate modern Western tailoring innovations such as clasps, zippers and buttons- zippers being a much appreciated addition for ladies' requiring the bathroom, without requiring being literally unwrapped by a helper- to the extent the true kain is near unanimously rejected. Other modern innovations have included the blouse baju kebaya worn without the restrictive kemben, and eve the kebaya blouse worn with slacks or made of the fabric usually for the kain panjang. The female flight attendant of Malaysia Airlines also featuring batik kebaya as their uniform.
The female uniform of Garuda Indonesia flight attendants is more authentic modern interpretations, the kebaya is designed in simple yet classic kartini style kebaya derived from 19th century kebaya of Javanese noblewomen. The kebaya made from fire-proof cotton-polyester fabrics, with batik sarongs in parang or lereng gondosuli motif, which also incorporate garuda's wing motif and small dots represent jasmine.[14]

(7 GAMBAR)Nora Danish Pakai Baju Sekolah, Serius Cute!!!

Lupakan seketika sisi seksi Nora Danish yang ditampilkan di ruang suratkhabar baru-baru ini. Hari ini Nora Danish telah mengupload beberapa keping gambarnya berpakaian baju kurung sekolah menerusi Facebook Nora Danish bersempena dengan filem Lagenda Budak Hostel. Cute gila kot ~~
nora danish
Kalau zaman sekolah dulu ada awek secomel Nora Danish, pastinya menjadi rebutan pelajar-pelajar lelaki. Silap-silap boleh putus member dibuatnya. Layankan lagi 6 keping gambar Nora Danish dengan membaca entri ini sepenuhnya.
P.S: Nazmi Faiz di FC Beira Mar

nora danish
nora danish
nora danish
nora danish
nora danish
nora danish

10 style pakaian sekolahan di Negara Jepang

Inilah 10 style pakaian sekolahan di Negara Jepang..umumnya para remaja wanita memakai rok pendek...hmm..klo di indonesia gk bole tuh..ntar rawan pemerkosaan..hehehe
oke ini dia 10 style Pakaian sekolah di Jepang.
















Kalo Mau Pake Cweknya disini gan

Pro dan Kontra Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah

Pro dan Kontra Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah

Baju Seragam Sekolah MurahKami telah bekerja dengan sekolah-sekolah di seluruh Indonesia, dan percaya kami, Anda bukan satu-satunya orang menanyakan pertanyaan ini! Jawaban yang kami telah mendengar dari pelanggan kami sangat beragam seperti pelanggan kami. Perdebatan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah rumit , sehingga kami telah menyertakan menyoroti dari kedua belah pihak untuk Anda pertimbangkan :
Profesional – Beberapa mengatakan bahwa seorang anak di Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah lebih mungkin untuk anak menjadi lebih serius dan full kosentrasi untuk belajar di sekolahnya. Menempatkan pada sinyal Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang dia pergi ke sekolah seperti gaun ayah untuk pergi bekerja. Sekolah melaporkan bahwa ketika siswa berpakaian “pakaian kerja” ketimbang “pakaian bermain” mereka mengambil pendekatan yang lebih serius untuk studi mereka.
Meningkatkan Disiplin Baik – Banyak berpikir bahwa Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah membantu menjaga disiplin sekolah, menurunnya jumlah masalah disiplin. Argumennya adalah bahwa anak-anak saat ini kurang disiplin diri karena orang tua menolak untuk mendisiplinkan mereka. Hal ini membuat lebih sulit pada guru yang harus berurusan dengan kelas 25-30 siswa pada suatu waktu.

Pro dan Kontra Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah

Mengurangi Fighting dan Kekerasan – Sekolah melaporkan bahwa Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah menurunkan pertempuran dan kekerasan yang arrise keluar dari argumen atas pakaian modis. Anak-anak selalu menggoda orang-orang yang tidak memiliki pakaian trendi. Mereka yang tidak mampu pakaian nama merek sering sensitif tentang pakaian mereka. Sekolah berjuang dengan masalah geng melaporkan bahwa Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah membantu meredakan ketegangan.
Gangguan – Banyak orang tua percaya bahwa siswa mengenakan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah tampak lebih bagus dan bahwa kebijakan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah memastikan bahwa anak-anak akan datang ke sekolah dalam pakaian yang tepat, menghindari gangguan seperti mode dianggap aneh atau terlalu mengungkapkan. Beberapa siswa telah mengubah sekolah menjadi sebuah fashion show tanpa akhir. Ini disctracts dari belajar, karena beberapa anak-anak menghabiskan waktu lebih terfokus pada pakaian mereka daripada pekerjaan rumah.

Pro dan Kontra Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah

Nilai – Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah menekankan bahwa individualitas dan ekspresi diri tidak ditentukan oleh desainer pakaian atau mode fashion terbaru.
Biaya rendah – Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang murah. Mereka menjadi jauh lebih murah daripada pakaian lainnya. Sekolah berpendapat bahwa Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang ekonomis, terutama dibandingkan dengan desainer pakaian, dan orang tua setuju ketahanan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang diberikan. Mereka mengatakan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah lebih lama karena mereka dibuat untuk mencuci berulang dan keausan. Banyak sekolah memanfaatkan ini dengan memulai toko Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang digunakan atau perlombaan swap. Orangtua bisa mendapatkan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah yang digunakan dengan harga diskon, atau hanya menggunakannya sebagai tangan-me-downs antara saudara kandung.
Sekolah Spirit – Sebagian merasa mengenakan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah membantu membangun semangat sekolah. Ini menanamkan rasa memiliki. Sebagai Beach Boys berkata, “Jadilah benar ke sekolah Anda.” Sekolah melaporkan peningkatan kebanggaan sekolah.
Individualitas – Supressing individualitas adalah keberatan paling sering dikutip untuk seragam sekolah. Pendidik berpendapat bahwa sebuah program akademik mendorong siswa untuk mengejar pemikiran individu jauh lebih penting daripada apa yang mereka kenakan. Mereka menghambat kreativitas dan ekspresi diri, memaksa siswa untuk menyesuaikan diri.
Penyebab Masalah Disiplin – Beberapa siswa menolak setiap aturan. Memaksa mereka untuk mengenakan Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah hanya memperburuk semangat rebelious mereka. Mereka mengubah Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah mereka dengan pengetatan, melebar, memperpendek, atau memperpanjang mereka, dan guru diberi tugas yang mustahil kepolisian siswa setiap hari.
Sedikit atau Tidak Hubungan dengan Akademisi – Lawan bersikeras bahwa mereka ada bukti kredibel bahwa Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah meningkatkan disiplin sekolah atau mempromosikan acheivement akademik yang lebih tinggi. Argumen utama adalah bahwa beberapa siswa besar adalah meja rias yang mengerikan. Baju tidak selalu meningkatkan pembelajaran salam dari Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah.
Posted in Baju Seragam Sekolah, Baju Seragam Sekolah Murah | Tagged , , , , , , | Leave a comment

Baju Seragam Sekolah

Baju seragam sekolah adalah baju yang digunakan oleh siswa-siswi suatu sekolah atau lembaga pendidikan tertentu sebagai lambang atau identitas dari suatu sekolah. Adanya trend kekebasan yang berkiblat dari belahan dunia barat, menimbulkan adanya pro dan kontra terhadap pemakaian baju seragam sekolah ini, maklum kalau tidak sesuai dengan trend barat kata anak sekarang ketinggalan jaman.
Anda membutuhkan baju seragam sekolah untuk Anak tercinta Anda tanpa repot, Pesan sekarang juga disini :
Baju Seragam Sekolah - OrderPadahal di negara-negara barat pun baju seragam sekolah masih menjadi ketetapan yang dikeluarkan oleh negaranya. Tapi ternyata ada perbedaan baju seragam sekolah di Indonesia dengan negara-negara Eropa misalnya, rata-rata di negara Eropa seragamnya memakai jas jadi kelihatan beda jauh :) dibandingkan baju seragam sekolah di Indonesia. Dan jika saya bandingkan dengan negara Asia contoh Negara Jepang juga berbeda, mereka disana untuk siswa memakai jas dan untuk siswi memakai baju seragam sekolah ala sailor.
Saya akan menceritakan dulu baju seragam sekolah negara Jepang untuk studi perbandingan dengan Negara Indonesia. Ada yang bertanya mengapa baju seragam sekolah negara Jepang seperti pelaut, ini informasinya , dulu ada pertanyaan tentang seragam anak sekolah di Jepang yang mirip dengan seragam pelaut.
Baju Seragam SekolahSaya coba tanya ke teman-teman Jepang, kenapa seragam anak sekolah di Jepang mirip seragam pelaut dan mereka rada mengerenyit aneh dengan pertanyaan saya. Beberapa hari yang lalu ketika menginap di rumah seorang teman di Tsukuba Daigaku, saya mendapat sedikit penjelasan darinya. Saya coba search di wikipedia tentang セーラ服(se-ra fuku), seragam sailor. Dan lumayan dijelaskan baik dalam edisi bahasa Inggris-nya apalagi yang berbahasa Jepang.
Pakaian ala sailor merupakan ide seorang kepala sekolah Fukuoka jo gakuin, Ibu Elizabeth Lee.Waktu itu anak-anak putri Jepang mengenakan kimono ketika bersekolah yang tentu saja menyulitkan gerak gerik mereka ketika berolahraga. Maka bu kepsek teringat dengan model seragam yang dipakainya ketika belajar di Inggris, yaitu baju sailor. Tahun 1918, bu Elizabeth meminta seorang penjahit di Oota Toyokichi (太田豊吉)untuk menjahitkan baju atasan seragam anak-anak putri. Setelah jadi, baju sailor itu ternyata robek ketika dipakai berolah raga, maka bu Elizabeth menyarankan agar dipasang resleting di bagian kiri/kanan baju dari arah ketiak.Tapi kelihatannya resleting ini tidak lazim sekarang. Itu ceritanya tentang mengapa Baju Seragam Sekolah di Jepang seperti pelaut.
Asal kata untuk masing-masing kata baju seragam sekolah penjelasannya di bawah ini, Baju adalah kebutuhan pokok manusia selain makanan dan tempat berteduh/tempat tinggal (rumah). Manusia membutuhkan baju  untuk melindungi dan menutup dirinya. Namun seiring dengan perkembangan kehidupan manusia, baju juga digunakan sebagai  simbol status, jabatan, ataupun kedudukan seseorang yang memakainya.
Perkembangan dan jenis-jenis baju tergantung pada adat-istiadat, kebiasaan, dan budaya yang memiliki ciri khas masing-masing. Baju juga meningkatkan keamanan selama kegiatan berbahaya seperti hiking dan memasak, dengan memberikan penghalang antara kulit dan lingkungan. Baju juga memberikan penghalang higienis, menjaga toksin dari badan dan membatasi penularan kuman.
Seragam adalah seperangkat pakaian standar yang dikenakan oleh anggota suatu organisasi sewaktu berpartisipasi dalam aktivitas organisasi tersebut. Pelaksana kegiatan keagamaan telah menggunakan kostum standar sejak dulu. Contoh lain penggunaan seragam yang pertama adalah pakaian tentara Kekaisaran Romawi dan peradaban-peradaban lainnya. Seragam modern dikenakan oleh angkatan bersenjata dan organisasi paramiliter seperti polisi, layanan darurat, satpam, di beberapa tempat kerja, sekolah, dan penghuni penjara.
Di beberapa negara, pejabat negara juga dapat menggunakan seragam, contohnya seragam pegawai negeri sipil di Indonesia.Saat ini banyak pegawai – pegawai restauran dan pedagang kaki lima juga menggunakan seragam kerja kantor. Sehingga banyak konveksi – konveksi di Bandung, produksi seragam tersebut.
Sekolah adalah sebuah lembaga yang dirancang untuk pengajaran siswa / murid di bawah pengawasan guru. Sebagian besar negara memiliki sistem pendidikan formal, yang umumnya wajib. Dalam sistem ini, siswa kemajuan melalui serangkaian sekolah. Nama-nama untuk sekolah-sekolah ini bervariasi menurut negara (dibahas pada bagian Daerah di bawah), tetapi umumnya termasuk sekolah dasar untuk anak-anak muda dan sekolah menengah untuk remaja yang telah menyelesaikan pendidikan dasar. Jadi jika di rangkaikan kata-kata tadi pengertian dari baju seragam sekolah jadi seperti diawal paragraf di atas.

Baju Seragam Sekolah

Pentingnya baju seragam sekolah bagi siswa-siswi di suatu sekolah. Hal ini menjadi penting sekali keberadaanya karena ini merupakan salah satu proses pembelajaran bagi mereka, dengan memakai baju seragam sekolah ini mereka harus berhati-hati dalam bertindak. BERITA penghapusan seragam sekolah menimbulkan pro-kontra di kalangan publik. Dikabarkan, Menteri Pendidikan Nasional ( Mendiknas ) Bambang Sudibyo berencana menghapus baju seragam sekolah (Suara Merdeka, 5 November 2004). Berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, tidak mengherankan bila terjadi pro dan kontra, terlebih di kalangan praktisi pendidikan.
Pejabat pemerintahan yang lain pun ikut menyayangkan rencana penghapusan itu. Oleh karenanya, dipandang perlu Mendiknas mempertimbangkan terlebih dahulu rencana penghapusan baju seragam sekolah, sebelum menjadi suatu kebijakan.
Penulis sebagai orang tua siswa yang juga sebagai guru, sangat menyayangkan rencana penghapusan baju seragam sekolah. Sebab, baju seragam sekolah mempunyai banyak fungsi dan manfaat, antara lain ;
1.    Identitas suatu sekolah sesuai dengan jenjang pendidikan masing-masing.
2. Menciptakan kedisiplinan siswa. Dengan pemakaian baju seragam sekolah yang ditentukan berdasarkan hari dalam tiap minggunya, dapat menciptakan perasaan dan semangat disiplin, misalnya pada hari Senin sampai dengan hari Kamis siswa berseragam sekolah, hari Jumat dan Sabtu memakai seragam pramuka, dan setiap olahraga memakai pakaian seragam olahraga.
3. Membentuk kerapian. Saat pelaksanaan upacara bendera, akan tampak jelas, dengan baju seragam sekolah membuat kerapian dalam barisan.
4. Menampakkan keindahan. Dari kerapian, akan memunculkan keindahan yang enak dipandang.
5. Kebanggaan orang tua. Melihat anak-anaknya berangkat ke sekolah dengan baju seragam sekolah sesuai jenjang pendidikan masing-masing, orang tua merasa bangga.
6. Tercipta rasa persatuan dan kesatuan di antara para siswa.
7. Memperlihatkan perbedaan jenjang pendidikan. Sekolah Dasar berseragam putih merah, Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Pertama berseragam putih biru, Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Atas berseragam putih abu-abu, sehingga dengan mudah dibedakan mana siswa Sekolah Dasar, mana siswa Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Pertama dan mana siswa Sekolah Lanjutan Tingkat Atas.
8. Memudahkan pemantauan, bila dalam rangka upacara peringatan hari besar nasional, atau dalam acara perlombaan, atau juga dalam kegiatan wisata maupun kegiatan yang lain secara bersamaan dengan berbagai sekolah di segala jenjang pendidikan. Dengan pakaian seragam, memudahkan bagi guru dalam memantau anak didiknya.
9. Sebagai kendali. Dengan berpakaian baju seragam sekolah, secara otomatis anak-anak merasa bukan anak liar, yang sangat bebas bertindak dan melakukan pelanggaran asusila maupun kegiatan yang dilarang oleh peraturan sekolah.
10. Ada perbedaan antara baju seragam sekolah dengan pakaian di rumah, atau pakaian kegiatan di luar rumah. Masing-masing pakaian dipakai sesuai dengan fungsi, situasi dan kondisinya.
Memberatkan : Bagaimana jika baju seragam sekolah dihapus? Besar kemungkinan muncul persoalan baru bagi sekolah dan juga orang tua siswa. Bagi sekolah, dengan adanya peraturan pemakaian baju seragam sekolah, siswa dididik untuk selalu tertib. Bila benar-benar seragam sekolah dihapus, tentunya sekolah harus pula merombak peraturannya, utamanya tata tertib dalam berpakaian.
Bagaimana dengan orang tua siswa? Bagi orang tua, khususnya yang tidak atau kurang mampu, akan menjadi masalah besar, karena harus menyediakan pakaian baru yang layak untuk sekolah anak-anaknya. Ya, kalau kebetulan anaknya satu atau dua, kemungkinan tidak begitu terasa berat. Lalu bagaimana dengan yang anaknya banyak dan semuanya masih bersekolah? Bukankah mereka harus menyediakan pakaian baru layak pakai sekolah untuk anak-anaknya, yang setiap anak tentunya tidak hanya satu setel pakaian.
Harga baju seragam sekolah layak saat sekarang sungguh dapat dikatakan mahal. Bukankah orang tua harus menambah beban pengeluaran baru yang tidak sedikit jumlahnya? Belum lagi bila si anak memilih sendiri pakaian yang sesuai dengan seleranya.
Di sisi lain, orang tua menghendaki sekolah murah, yang juga merupakan program pemerintah. Bolehlah pemerintah (dalam hal ini Mendiknas) mengeluarkan kebijakan penghapusan baju seragam sekolah, namun hendaknya diimbangi dengan subsidi pembelian pakaian layak sekolah, khususnya untuk anak-anak tidak mampu. Mungkinkah pemerintah siap?
Bila itu tidak mungkin, maka akan berdampak besar bagi sekolah dan orang tua siswa yang tidak mampu. Rencana penghapusan seragam sekolah harus benar-benar dikaji ulang. Penghapusan seragam sekolah jangan sampai berdampak pada kesenjangan antara anak-anak yang mampu dengan anak-anak yang tidak mampu. Kesenjangan akan berdampak pada faktor spsikologis anak, dan dikhawatirkan menjadi hambatan bagi proses belajar mereka.

Baju Seragam Sekolah

Tapi disisi lain yang setuju dengan penghapusan Baju seragam sekolah ini argumen yang disampaikan, Keuntungan Bila Tanpa Baju Seragam Sekolah :
1.  Hemat, sehingga terjangkau oleh rakyat miskin.
2. Tidak membebani psikologi siswa pada hal yang tidak berkaitan langsung dengan pendidikan. Mereka perlu fokus kepada pelajaran, tidak perlu dialihkan kepada hal lain yang tidak penting.
3. Keterbukaan. Siswa dapat tampil apa adanya, sesuai dengan karakter dan kesukaan mereka. Guru dapat melihat bagaimana masing-masing gaya siswa yang sebenarnya sehingga dapat memberikan penilaian tentang hal itu. Misalnya bila siswa suka mengenakan baju yang terlalu mencolok, guru bisa mendekati dan menyarankan sesuatu untuk kebaikan siswa.
4. Keindahan. Siswa dapat tampil serapi atau semenarik mungkin (dalam batas kesopanan). Ini adalah hal alamiah yang dimiliki oleh seorang anak muda.
5. Memunculkan toleransi. Siswa dapat tampil sesuai dengan kebiasaan/ budaya keluarganya, sehingga semua siswa akan dapat melihat kenyataan bahwa masing-masing itu berbeda, dan mereka akan berlatih untuk menghargai perbedaan. Bila ada siswa yang kurang mampu, maka tentu akan dapat dikenali, disini siswa yang lain dapat segera memberikan respon positif misalnya berupa bantuan.
6. Menciptakan obyektivitas. Ketika berbaur dengan banyak siswa yang lain, seorang tidak akan dapat dibedakan mana yang senior dan junior. Maka yang dihargai bukan lagi penampilannya, melainkan kualitas pribadinya.
Kesimpulan – Menimbang baik dan buruknya pemberlakuan seragam di sekolah, maka saya berpendapat:
Jika sekolah mengadakan baju seragam sekolah, hendaknya memperhatikan kondisi ekonomi siswanya. Misalnya dengan membantu siswa yang kurang mampu. Memakai Baju Seragam Sekolah atau tidak, ukuran kesopanan dan kerapian hendaknya diukur dari standar Islam. Bila tidak akan terjadi perbedaan yang mencolok dan tidak perlu. Misalnya, betapa kapitalistiknya aturan “dilarang memakai sandal di kampus” lantaran dianggap tidak sopan (?) sementara yang berbaju ketat dan “kekong” (kethok bokong -maaf) dibiarkan berlalu lalang.
Jika ditanya, apakah dalam sekolah saya kelak akan menerapkan pemberlakuan seragam? saya akan jawab “hanya satu jenis seragam saja” untuk keperluan seremonial, karnaval, atau mengirim perwakilan sekolah, sementara untuk hari-hari kebanyakan siswa dibiarkan memilih baju kesukaannya untuk berangkat ke sekolah. Nah, sekarang giliran anda mengkritisi…

Sejarah Seragam Sekolah di Jepang

Sejarah Seragam Sekolah di Jepang






Ternyata dulu pakaian ala sailor merupakan ide seorang kepala sekolah Fukuoka jo gakuin, Ibu Elizabeth Lee. Zaman dulu anak-anak putri Jepang mengenakan kimono ketika bersekolah yang tentu saja menyulitkan gerak gerik mereka ketika beraktifitas terutama berolahraga. Kemudian Ibu Elizabeth Lee teringat dengan model seragam yang dipakainya ketika belajar di Inggris, yaitu baju Sailor/Pelaut. Tahun 1918, Ibu Elizabeth meminta seorang penjahit di Oota Toyokichi untuk menjahitkan baju atasan seragam anak-anak putri. Tetapi Baju sailor itu ternyata robek ketika dipakai berolah raga, maka Ibu Elizabeth menyarankan agar dipasang resleting di bagian kiri/kanan baju dari arah ketiak.Tapi kelihatannya resleting ini tidak lazim dikenakan.

Kendala selanjutnya gerakan anak-anak masih terhambat karena rok yang mereka pakai masih berbentuk lurus panjang. Ibu Elizabeth pun datang kembali ke penjahit dan menjelaskan agar dibuat rok yang memudahkan anak-anak bergerak. Penjahit mendapat ide membuat rok berlipit-lipit setelah melihat gorden yang tertiup angin tetapi setelah itu dan dapat kembali ke bentuk semula. Akhirnya dibuatlah rok lipit-lipit. Tapi lambat laun rok yang dipakai siswi-siswi Jepang semakin pendek.
Pada tahun 1921, pertama kali pemakaian seragam sailor di Jepang. Pada tahun yang sama, sekolah Kinjou gakuin di Aichi juga memutuskan menggunakan seragam sailor. Adapun anak laki-laki mereka berseragam seperti tentara Jepang dulu, lengkap dengan topinya yang disebut dengan `gakuran`. Sebenarnya pakaian sailor untuk siswi sebenarnya juga agak berkesan militer.
Seragam sailor biasanya dilengkapi dengan dasi, lalu disertai rok kotak-kotak berlipit-lipit, dan pada musim dingin para siswi sering memadukannya dengan Loose Shocks (kaus kaki kedodoran).
Di beberapa sekolah seragam sailor tidak dipakai lagi, tapi diganti dengan blazer atau kemeja putih berlengan pendek atau panjang. Tapi rok yang dikenakan tetap pendek, Anak-anak SMA di jepang lebih modis dan punya gaya berseragam yang unik-unik.
 Hmm..... Tentu para pria menyukai seragam ini tidak hanya pria di jepang karena seragam sekolah anak putri jepang membuat mereka terlihat cantik dan sexy dengan rok mini berlipat-lipat dan seragam atasan dengan kain putih tipis yang apabila basah terkena keringat atau hujan membuat seragam itu jadi tampak sedikit transparan...:D
 Dengan pakaian seragam, anak sekolah mudah untuk dikenali, apalagi jika mereka bolos pada jam-jam sekolah. Ironis nya bagi sekolah-sekolah untuk anak-anak yang tak mampu, Jangankan untuk membeli seragam, memenuhi kebutuhan sehari-hari pun mereka kesulitan.


Untuk sistem pendidikannya, di Jepang menerapkan sistem pendidikan dasar (shougakkou) tidak mengenal ujian kenaikan kelas, tetapi siswa yang telah menyelesaikan proses belajar di kelas satu secara otomatis akan naik ke kelas dua, demikian seterusnya. Ujian akhir pun tidak ada, karena SD dan SMP masih termasuk kelompok compulsoy education, sehingga siswa yang telah menyelesaikan studinya di tingkat SD dapat langsung mendaftar ke SMP.
 Tetapi untuk meningkatkan mutu pendidikan dan kompetensi anak-anak sekolah dijepang , Tentu saja guru tetap melakukan ulangan sekali2 untuk mengecek daya tangkap siswa. Dan penilaian ulangan pun tidak dengan angka tetapi dengan huruf : A, B, C, kecuali untuk matematika. Dari kelas 4 hingga kelas 6 juga dilakukan test IQ untuk melihat kemampuan dasar siswa. Data ini dipakai bukan untuk mengelompokkan siswa berdasarkan hasil test IQ-nya, tetapi untuk memberikan perhatian lebih kepada siswa dengan kemampuan di atas normal atau di bawah normal. Perlu diketahui, siswa2 di Jepang tidak dikelompokkan berdasarkan kepandaian, tetapi semua anak dianggap `bisa` mengikuti pelajaran, sehingga kelas berisi siswa dengan beragam kemampuan akademik.
Compulsory Education di Jepang dilaksanakan dengan prinsip memberikan akses penuh kepada semua anak untuk mengenyam pendidikan selama 9 tahun (SD dan SMP) dengan menggratiskan tuition fee, dan mewajibkan orang tua untuk menyekolahkan anak (ditetapkan dalam Fundamental Law of Education). Untuk memudahkan akses, maka di setiap distrik didirikan SD dan SMP walaupun daerah kampung dan siswa
nya minim (per kelas 10-11 siswa). Orang tua pun tidak boleh menyekolahkan anak ke distrik yang lain, jadi selama masa compulsory education, anak bersekolah di distrik masing2. Tentu saja mutu sekolah negeri di semua distrik sama, dalam arti fasilitas sekolah, bangunan sekolah, tenaga pengajar dengan persyaratan yang sama (guru harus memegang lisensi mengajar yang dikeluarkan oleh Educational Board setiap prefecture). Oleh karena itu mutu siswa SD dan SMP di Jepang yang bersekolah di sekolah negeri dapat dikatakan `sama`, sebab Ministry of Education menkondisikan equality di semua sekolah. Saat ini tengah digalakkan program reformasi yang memberi kesempatan kepada sekolah untuk berkreasi mengembangkan proses pendidikannya, tetapi tetap saja dalam pantauan MOE.
Di tingkat SMP dan SMA, sama seperti di Indonesia, ada dua kali ulangan, mid test dan final test, tetapi tidak bersifat wajib atau pun nasional. Di beberapa prefecture yang melaksanakan ujian, final test dilaksanakan serentak selama tiga hari, dengan materi ujian yang dibuat oleh sekolah berdasarkan standar dari Educational Board di setiap prefektur. Penilaian kelulusan siswa SMP dan SMA tidak berdasark
an hasil final test, tapi akumulasi dari nilai test sehari2, ekstra kurikuler, mid test dan final test. Dengan sistem seperti ini, tentu saja hampir 100% siswa naik kelas atau dapat lulus.
Selanjutnya siswa lulusan SMP dapat memilih SMA yang diminatinya, tetapi kali ini mereka harus mengikuti ujian masuk SMA yang bersifat standar, artinya soal ujian dibuat oleh Educational Board di setiap prefektur. Di Aichi prefecture, SMA-SMA dikelompokkan dengan pengelompokan A, B. Pengelompokan tersebut dibuat dalam proses memilih SMA. Setiap siswa dapat memilih satu sekolah di kelompok A dan satu sekolah di kelompok B. Jika si siswa lulus dalam kelompok A, maka secara otomatis dia gugur dari kelompok B. Dalam memilih SMA, siswa berkonsultasi dengan guru, orang tua atau disediakan lembaga khusus di Educational Board yang bertugas melayani konsultasi dalam memilih sekolah. Ujian masuk pun hampir serentak di seluruh jepang dengan bidang studi yang sama yaitu, Bahasa Jepang, English, Math, Social Studies, dan Science. Di level ini siswa dapat memilih sekolah di distrik lain.
Seperti dipaparkan di atas, siswa SMA tidak mengikuti ujian kelulusan secara nasional, tetapi ada beberapa prefecture yang melaksanakan ujian. Penilaian kelulusan siswa berbeda di setiap prefecture. Mengingat angka Drop out siswa SMA meningkat di tahun 1990-an, maka beberapa sekolah tidak mengadakan ujian akhir, jadi kelulusan hanya berdasarkan hasil ujian harian.
Untuk masuk universitas, siswa lulusan SMA diharuskan mengikuti ujian masuk universitas yang berskala nasional. Ini yang dianggap `neraka` oleh sebagian besar siswa SMA. Sebagian dari mereka memilih untuk belajar di juku (les privat, seperti di Indonesia) untuk dapat lulus ujian masuk universitas. Ujian masuk PT dilakukan dua tahap. Pertama secara nasional- soal ujian disusun oleh Ministry of education, terdiri dari lima subject, sama seperti ujian masuk SMA-, selanjutnya siswa harus mengikuti ujian masuk yang dilakukan masing2 universitas, tepatnya ujian masuk di setiap fakultas. Skor kelulusan adalah akumulasi ujian masuk nasional dan ujian di setiap PT. Seperti halnya di Indonesia, skor hasil UMPTN tidak diumumkan, tetapi jawaban ujian diberitakan via koran, TV atau internet, sehingga siswa dapat mengira2 sendiri berapa total score yg didapat. Siswa yang memilih Universitas dg skor tinggi, tapi ternyata skornya tidak memdai, dapat mengacu ke pilihan universitas ke-2. Namun jika skornya tidak mencukupi, maka siswa tidak dapat masuk Universitas. Selanjutnya dia dapat mengikuti ujian masuk PT swasta atau menjalani masa ronin (menyiapkan diri untuk mengikuti ujian masuk di tahun berikutnya) di prepatory school (yobikou)
Penilain mutu pendidikan di Jepang, dengan kata lain dilakukan dengan menstandarkan ujian masuk SMA dan PT, tentu saja sistem ini bisa berjalan karena pemerintah di Jepang pun berusaha maksimal untuk menyamakan kondisi public education-nya, dalam arti menyediakan infra struktur yang sama untuk setiap jenjang pendidikan di daerah.
 Saat ini gaung autonomy daerah makin kencang di Jepang, seberapa besar tarik ulur antara pemerintah pusat dan pemerintah daerah dalam sektor pendidikan menjadi salah satu pengamatan yang menarik bagi saya pribadi. Di jepang nuansa kebebasan untuk mengembangkan pendidikan berdasarkan potensi dan karakter daerah sangat kental.

Graphic design

Graphic design

Graphic symbols are often functionalist and anonymous,[1] as these pictographs from the US National Park Service illustrate.
Graphic design is a creative process, one most often involving a client and a designer, and traditionally completed in conjunction with producers of form (printers, sign makers, etc.). In the 21st century, however, graphic design may be applied directly to websites, eliminating the need for an intermediary. Graphic design is undertaken to convey a specific message (or messages) to a targeted audience, usually from the client, known as the 'brief'. The term "graphic design" can also refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines that focus on visual communication and presentation. The field as a whole is also often referred to as Visual Communication or Communication Design. Various methods are used to create and combine words, symbols, and images to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use a combination of typography, visual arts and page layout techniques to produce a balanced, focused and symmetrical final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), publications (magazines, newspapers and books), advertisements and product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.

Contents

History

Page from the Book of Kells: Folio 114v, Decorated text. Tunc dicit illis
While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively recent history, with the term "graphic design" first coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922,[2] graphic design-like activities span the history of humankind: from the caves of Lascaux, to Rome's Trajan's Column to the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of Ginza. In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art. After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In advertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human experience."[3]

The advent of printing

During the Tang Dynasty (618–907) between the 7th and 9th century AD, wood blocks were cut to print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type printing making books widely available during the Song dynasty (960–1279).[4] Sometime around 1450, Johann Gutenberg's printing press made books widely available in Europe. The book design of Aldus Manutius developed the book structure which would become the foundation of western publication design. This era of graphic design is called Humanist or Old Style.

Emergence of the design industry

In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.
In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.
From 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.[5]

Twentieth century design

A Boeing 747 aircraft with livery designating it as Air Force One. The cyan forms, the US flag, presidential seal and the Caslon lettering were all designed at different times and combined by designer Raymond Loewy in this one final design.
The name "Graphic Design" first appeared in print in the 1922 essay "New Kind of Printing Calls for New Design" by William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century.[6]
Raffe's Graphic Design, published in 1927, is considered to be the first book to use "Graphic Design" in its title.[7]
The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example[8] of the modern era and used a typeface designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.
In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus, etc.[citation needed]
Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.[citation needed] Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and El Lissitzky have greatly influenced graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques[citation needed] and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application.[9] A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern" architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include Adrian Frutiger, designer of the typefaces Univers and Frutiger; Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as corporate identity; and Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1970s era.
The growth of the professional graphic design industry has grown in parallel with the rise of consumerism. This has raised some concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design community with the First Things First manifesto. First launched by Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-published as the First Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine Emigre 51[10] stating "We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communication - a mindshift away from product marketing and toward the exploration and production of a new kind of meaning. The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and resources of design."[11] Both editions attracted signatures from respected design practitioners and thinkers, for example; Rudy VanderLans, Erik Spiekermann, Ellen Lupton and Rick Poynor. The 2000 manifesto was also notably published in Adbusters, known for its strong critiques of visual culture.

Applications

From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of knowledge and visual messages. Readability and legibility is enhanced by improving the visual presentation and layout of text.
Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication. It is applied to products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, packaging, and text. Together these are defined as branding (see also advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside corporate identity. Whilst the terms are often used interchangeably, branding is more strictly related to the identifying mark or trade name for a product or service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating to the structure and ethos of a company, as well as to the company's external image. Graphic designers will often form part of a team working on corporate identity and branding projects. Other members of that team can include marketing professionals, communications consultants and commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams. A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of human anatomy. Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.
Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling. Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, DVD covers, opening credits and closing credits in filmmaking, and programs and props on stage. This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.
From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information - known as information design. Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain. With the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.

Skills

A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required. In a magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Or the designer may utilize stock imagery or photography. Contemporary design practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as interactive design, or multimedia design.

Visual arts

Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by means of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer. Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to photography or computer generated art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.

Typography

Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all characters used), kerning (the space between two specific characters), and leading (line spacing).
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.

Page layout

The page layout aspect of graphic design deals with the arrangement of elements (content) on a page, such as image placement, and text layout and style. Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalogue layouts, structured page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.

Interface design

Since the advent of the World Wide Web and computer software development, many graphic designers have become involved in interface design. This has included web design and software design, when end user interactivity is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software developers and web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface design is icon design.

User experience design

Considers how a user interacts with and responds to an interface, service or product and adjusts it accordingly.

Printmaking

Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces. Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate create an edition, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to form a limited edition. Prints may also be published in book form, as artist's books. A single print could be the product of one or multiple techniques.

Tools

The pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
The mind may be the most important graphic design tool. Aside from technology, graphic design requires judgment and creativity. Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are required for design layouts and rendering. If the executor is merely following a solution (e.g. sketch, script or instructions) provided by another designer (such as an art director), then the executor is not usually considered the designer.
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, medium) may be equally important to the design. The layout is produced using external traditional or digital image editing tools. The appropriate development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives a project.
In the mid 1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced a generation of designers to computer image manipulation and creation that had previously been manually executed. Computer graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media without requiring a lot of space. However, traditional tools such as pencils or markers are useful even when computers are used for finalization; a designer or art director may hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process. Some of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage approval, before the designer develops the idea further using a computer and graphic design software tools.
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the graphic design industry. Computers and software applications are generally seen by creative professionals as more effective production tools than traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and traditional tools for production, such as Milton Glaser.
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil and paper.[12] Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers to sculpture as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of graphic design is that it makes a tool out of appropriate image selection in order to possibly convey meaning.[13]

Computers and the creative process

There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design.[14] Rapid production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering or paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process more quickly.[15] However, being faced with limitless choices does not help isolate the best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear design outcome.
A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly[16] without the distractions and complications of software.[citation needed] Hand-rendered comps are often used to get approval for an idea execution before a designer invests time to produce finished visuals on a computer or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly refine and produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid process is especially useful in logo design[17] where a software learning curve may detract from a creative thought process. The traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for freeing one's creativity in page layout or image development as well.[citation needed] In the early days of computer publishing, many "traditional" graphic designers relied on computer-savvy production artists to produce their ideas from sketches, without needing to learn the computer skills themselves. However, this practice has been increasingly less common since the advent of desktop publishing over 30 years ago. The use of computers and graphics software is now taught in most graphic design courses.
Nearly all of the popular and "industry standard" software programs used for graphic design since the early 1990s are products of Adobe Systems Incorporated. They are Adobe Photoshop (a raster-based program for photo editing), Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing), Adobe InDesign (a page layout program), and Adobe Dreamweaver (for Web page design). Another major page layout tool is QuarkXpress (a product of Quark, Inc., a separate company from Adobe). Both QuarkXpress and Adobe InDesign are often used in the final stage of the electronic design process. Raster images may have been edited in Adobe Photoshop, logos and illustrations in Adobe Illustrator, and the final product assembled in one of the major page layout programs. Most graphic designers entering the field since about 1990 are expected to be proficient in at least one or two of these programs.

Occupations

Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the creative spectrum and often overlap. The main job responsibility of a Graphic Designer is the arrangement of visual elements in some type of media. The main job titles within the industry can vary and are often country specific. They can include graphic designer, art director, creative director, and the entry level production artist. Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as "DTP Associate" or "Graphic Artist", but despite changes in title, graphic design principles remain consistent. The responsibilities may come from, or lead to, specialized skills such as illustration, photography or interactive design. Today's graduating graphic design students are normally exposed to all of these areas of graphic design and urged to become familiar with all of them as well in order to be competitive.
Graphic designers can work in a variety of environments. Whilst many will work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within publishing, marketing or other communications companies. Increasingly, especially since the introduction of personal computers to the industry, many graphic designers have found themselves working within non-design oriented organizations, as in-house designers. Graphic designers may also work as free-lance designers, working on their own terms, prices, ideas, etc.
A graphic designer reports to the art director, creative director or senior media creative. As a designer becomes more senior, they may spend less time designing media and more time leading and directing other designers on broader creative activities, such as brand development and corporate identity development. They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example taking and interpreting briefs.