Graphic design
Graphic design is a creative process, one most often involving
a client and a designer, and traditionally completed in conjunction
with producers of form (printers, sign makers, etc.). In the 21st
century, however, graphic design may be applied directly to websites,
eliminating the need for an intermediary. Graphic design is undertaken
to convey a specific message (or messages) to a targeted audience,
usually from the client, known as the 'brief'. The term "graphic design"
can also refer to a number of artistic and professional disciplines
that focus on visual communication and presentation. The field as a
whole is also often referred to as
Visual Communication or
Communication Design.
Various methods are used to create and combine words, symbols, and
images to create a visual representation of ideas and messages. A
graphic designer may use a combination of
typography,
visual arts and
page layout
techniques to produce a balanced, focused and symmetrical final result.
Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which
the communication is created and the products (designs) which are
generated.
Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding),
publications (magazines, newspapers and books), advertisements and
product packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo
or other artwork, organized text and pure design elements such as shapes
and color which unify the piece.
Composition is one of the most important features of graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.
History
Page from the
Book of Kells: Folio 114v, Decorated text.
Tunc dicit illis
While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively recent history, with the term "graphic design" first coined by
William Addison Dwiggins in 1922,
[2] graphic design-like activities span the history of humankind: from the caves of
Lascaux, to Rome's
Trajan's Column to the
illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of
Ginza. In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent explosion of
visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction and over-lapping of
advertising art, graphic design and
fine art. After all, they share many of the same elements, theories, principles, practices and
languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client. In
advertising
art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In
graphic design, "the essence is to give order to information, form to
ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human
experience."
[3]
The advent of printing
During the
Tang Dynasty
(618–907) between the 7th and 9th century AD, wood blocks were cut to
print on textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist
scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known printed book. Beginning
in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using
movable type printing making books widely available during the Song
dynasty (960–1279).
[4] Sometime around 1450,
Johann Gutenberg's printing press made books widely available in Europe. The book design of
Aldus Manutius
developed the book structure which would become the foundation of
western publication design. This era of graphic design is called
Humanist or Old Style.
Emergence of the design industry
In late 19th century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the movement began to separate graphic design from fine art.
In 1849,
Henry Cole
became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain,
informing the government of the importance of design in his
Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized the
Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.
From 1891 to 1896,
William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the
Arts and Crafts movement,
and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic
refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved
that a market existed for works of graphic design in their own right
and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from
fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its
obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however,
important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale
state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the
rest of the
Private Press movement, directly influenced
Art Nouveau and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.
[5]
Twentieth century design
The name "Graphic Design" first appeared in print in the 1922 essay "New Kind of Printing Calls for New Design" by
William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century.
[6]
Raffe's
Graphic Design, published in 1927, is considered to be the first book to use "Graphic Design" in its title.
[7]
The signage in the
London Underground is a classic design example
[8] of the modern era and used a typeface designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.
In the 1920s, Soviet
constructivism
applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production.
The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia
and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitarian purposes. They
designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture,
logos, menus, etc.
[citation needed]
Jan Tschichold codified the principles of
modern typography in his 1928 book,
New Typography. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.
[citation needed] Tschichold,
Bauhaus typographers such as
Herbert Bayer and
Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, and
El Lissitzky have greatly influenced graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques
[citation needed]
and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The
following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread
acceptance and application.
[9]
A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need
for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of
the German
Bauhaus
school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "mass-produced"
minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern" architecture and
design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include
Adrian Frutiger, designer of the
typefaces Univers and
Frutiger;
Paul Rand,
who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the principles
of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design,
helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism
while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic
design known as
corporate identity; and
Josef Müller-Brockmann, who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1970s era.
The growth of the professional graphic design industry has grown in parallel with the rise of
consumerism. This has raised some concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design community with the
First Things First manifesto. First launched by
Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-published as the
First Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine
Emigre 51
[10]
stating "We propose a reversal of priorities in favor of more useful,
lasting and democratic forms of communication - a mindshift away from
product marketing and toward the exploration and production of a new
kind of meaning. The scope of debate is shrinking; it must expand.
Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other
perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and
resources of design."
[11] Both editions attracted signatures from respected design practitioners and thinkers, for example;
Rudy VanderLans,
Erik Spiekermann,
Ellen Lupton and
Rick Poynor. The 2000 manifesto was also notably published in
Adbusters, known for its strong critiques of visual culture.
Applications
From
road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice
memorandums to reference
manuals, graphic design enhances transfer of
knowledge and visual messages.
Readability and
legibility is enhanced by improving the visual presentation and layout of text.
Design can also aid in selling a
product or
idea through effective visual communication. It is applied to products and elements of company identity like
logos, colors,
packaging, and text. Together these are defined as
branding (see also
advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of services offered by many graphic designers, alongside
corporate identity.
Whilst the terms are often used interchangeably, branding is more
strictly related to the identifying mark or trade name for a product or
service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating
to the structure and ethos of a company, as well as to the company's
external image. Graphic designers will often form part of a team working
on corporate identity and branding projects. Other members of that team
can include marketing professionals, communications consultants and
commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography,
science, and math. These publications have layouts which illustrate
theories and
diagrams. A common example of graphics in use to educate is diagrams of
human anatomy.
Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational
material to make the information more accessible and more readily
understandable.
Graphic design is applied in the
entertainment
industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling. Other
examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic
books, DVD covers,
opening credits and
closing credits in
filmmaking, and programs and props on stage. This could also include artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.
From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of
opinion and facts is often improved with graphics and thoughtful
compositions of visual information - known as
information design.
Newspapers, magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use
graphic design to inform and entertain. With the advent of the web,
information designers with experience in interactive tools such as
Adobe Flash are increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.
Skills
A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing
text and either preexisting
imagery
or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper
story begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes
the graphic designer's job to organize the page into a reasonable layout
and determine if any other graphic elements should be required. In a
magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art
director will commission photographers or illustrators to create
original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Or the
designer may utilize stock imagery or photography. Contemporary design
practice has been extended to the modern computer, for example in the
use of
WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to as
interactive design, or
multimedia design.
Visual arts
Main article:
Visual arts
Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic
elements must be originated by means of visual art skills. These
graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer.
Visual arts include works which are primarily
visual in nature using anything from
traditional media, to photography or
computer generated art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element individually as well as to the final composition.
Typography
Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type
glyphs,
and arranging type. Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified
using a variety of illustration techniques. The arrangement of type is
the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all
characters used), kerning (the space between two specific characters),
and leading (line spacing).
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers,
graphic artists, art directors, and clerical workers. Until the Digital
Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up
typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.
Page layout
Main article:
Page layout
The page layout aspect of graphic design deals with the arrangement
of elements (content) on a page, such as image placement, and text
layout and style. Beginning from early
illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the
Middle Ages
and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalogue layouts,
structured page design has long been a consideration in printed
material. With print media, elements usually consist of
type (text),
images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not printed with ink such as
die/
laser cutting,
foil stamping or
blind embossing.
Interface design
Since the advent of the
World Wide Web and computer software development, many graphic designers have become involved in interface design. This has included
web design and
software design, when
end user interactivity
is a design consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual
communication skills with the interactive communication skills of user
interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with
software developers and
web developers to create both the
look and feel of a web site or
software application and enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface design is
icon design.
User experience design
Considers how a user interacts with and responds to an interface, service or product and adjusts it accordingly.
Printmaking
Main article:
Printmaking
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on
paper
and other materials or surfaces. Except in the case of monotyping, the
process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which is
called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not
a reproduction of another work of art and is technically known as an
impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand, create a unique
original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original
surface, known technically as a matrix. Common types of matrices
include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or
etching; stone, used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts,
linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screen-printing. But there
are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate
create an edition, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to
form a limited edition. Prints may also be published in book form, as
artist's books. A single print could be the product of one or multiple
techniques.
Tools
The
pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.
The mind may be the most important graphic design tool. Aside from technology, graphic design requires
judgment and
creativity. Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are required for design layouts and
rendering. If the executor is merely following a solution (e.g. sketch, script or instructions) provided by another designer (such as an
art director), then the executor is not usually considered the designer.
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, medium) may be
equally important to the design. The layout is produced using external
traditional or
digital image editing tools. The appropriate development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives a project.
In the mid 1980s, the arrival of
desktop publishing and
graphic art software applications
introduced a generation of designers to computer image manipulation and
creation that had previously been manually executed. Computer graphic
design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or
typographic changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media
without requiring a lot of space. However, traditional tools such as
pencils or
markers
are useful even when computers are used for finalization; a designer or
art director may hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the
creative process.
Some of these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage
approval, before the designer develops the idea further using a computer
and graphic design software tools.
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the graphic design industry. Computers and
software applications are generally seen by
creative professionals as more effective production
tools than traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and traditional tools for production, such as
Milton Glaser.
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas using pencil and paper.
[12]
Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from
computers to sculpture as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the
key features of graphic design is that it makes a tool out of
appropriate image selection in order to possibly convey meaning.
[13]
Computers and the creative process
There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design.
[14]
Rapid production from the computer allows many designers to explore
multiple ideas quickly with more detail than what could be achieved by
traditional hand-rendering or
paste-up on paper, moving the designer through the creative process more quickly.
[15]
However, being faced with limitless choices does not help isolate the
best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear
design outcome.
A graphic designer may use
sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly
[16] without the distractions and complications of software.
[citation needed] Hand-rendered
comps
are often used to get approval for an idea execution before a designer
invests time to produce finished visuals on a computer or in paste-up.
The same
thumbnail
sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly refine and
produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid
process is especially useful in
logo design
[17] where a software
learning curve
may detract from a creative thought process. The
traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for
freeing one's creativity in
page layout or
image development as well.
[citation needed] In the early days of computer publishing, many "traditional" graphic designers relied on computer-savvy
production artists
to produce their ideas from sketches, without needing to learn the
computer skills themselves. However, this practice has been increasingly
less common since the advent of
desktop publishing over 30 years ago. The use of computers and graphics software is now taught in most graphic design courses.
Nearly all of the popular and "industry standard" software programs
used for graphic design since the early 1990s are products of
Adobe Systems Incorporated. They are Adobe
Photoshop (a raster-based program for photo editing),
Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing),
Adobe InDesign (a page layout program), and
Adobe Dreamweaver (for Web page design). Another major page layout tool is
QuarkXpress (a product of Quark, Inc., a separate company from Adobe). Both
QuarkXpress and
Adobe InDesign
are often used in the final stage of the electronic design process.
Raster images may have been edited in Adobe Photoshop, logos and
illustrations in Adobe Illustrator, and the final product assembled in
one of the major page layout programs. Most graphic designers entering
the field since about 1990 are expected to be proficient in at least one
or two of these programs.
Occupations
Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the
creative spectrum
and often overlap. The main job responsibility of a Graphic Designer is
the arrangement of visual elements in some type of media. The main job
titles within the industry can vary and are often country specific. They
can include
graphic designer,
art director,
creative director, and the entry level
production artist. Depending on the industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as "
DTP Associate" or "
Graphic Artist",
but despite changes in title, graphic design principles remain
consistent. The responsibilities may come from, or lead to, specialized
skills such as
illustration,
photography or
interactive design.
Today's graduating graphic design students are normally exposed to all
of these areas of graphic design and urged to become familiar with all
of them as well in order to be competitive.
Graphic designers can work in a variety of environments. Whilst many
will work within companies devoted specifically to the industry, such as
design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within
publishing, marketing or other communications companies. Increasingly,
especially since the introduction of personal computers to the industry,
many graphic designers have found themselves working within non-design
oriented organizations, as in-house designers. Graphic designers may
also work as free-lance designers, working on their own terms, prices,
ideas, etc.
A graphic designer reports to the
art director,
creative director or
senior media creative.
As a designer becomes more senior, they may spend less time designing
media and more time leading and directing other designers on broader
creative activities, such as
brand development and
corporate identity development. They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example taking and interpreting briefs.
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